Risk factors for post traumatic stress disorder Essay

Risk factors for post traumatic stress disorder - Essay Example Furthermore, hyper arousal symptoms refer to being skittish, hyper vigilance, irritability, anger outbursts and difficulty in sleeping and relaxing. This life affecting condition is distressing, weakening and a big hindrance for a person to achieve his outmost capacity. Generally, treatment for this disorder is medication, cognitive behavioral therapy or the combination of both. Traumas are unforeseen disturbing incidents that bring forth different reactions from people. While different people have various mechanisms in coping with traumatic experiences, some people do tend to develop the post-traumatic stress disorder due to the intense emotional impact of traumas. There is however various possible risk factors that contribute to the development of post traumatic stress disorder. Numerous studies are emerging to learn more of these existing risk factors. This paper then is a discussion of some recent studies done on gender, socio-economic status and preexisting psychological conditions as risk factors for developing post traumatic stress disorder. It is clear that the men and women of a general population do differ not only in physiological and biological aspects but in a social level as well. Emotional and psychological vulnerability differ because men and women react to experiences in clearly much different ways. In a study done by Davidson, Kigamwa, Nicholls, Njenga and Nyamai (2004), a group of people were studied within three months after a terrorist attack. These people were first hand witnesses to "the bombing of the US embassy in Nairobi, Kenya, on a busy Friday morning in August 1998". The bombing resulted to 220 dead people and injuries to thousands of people. The 2, 627 respondents to the study were mostly made up of educated and professional individuals. Of the people included in the study, 47% consisted of women and more than half of the women were married and pregnant at the time of the bombing. The study established that there were 35% of the population sample that coincided with post traumatic stress disorder symptoms after the test results was summarized. Factors related with the analysis were associated primarily with the subjects having the female gender along with unmarried status and less education. For post traumatic stress disorder, gender should be regarded with more attention and understanding because according to Gavranidou and Rosner's (2003) findings in their review of recent studies, "men experience traumatic events more often, women and men differ in the type of traumatic experiences , and women more often develop post traumatic stress disorder after the experience of a traumatic event". Men and women differ in the type of traumatic experiences because, "women more often experience sexual abuse and rape, whereas men are more frequently traumatized by physical attacks and serious accidents" (Gavranidou and Rosner, 2003). In addition, there were also no definite differences with respect to gender in the accounted traumatic incidents such as death of a loved one or natural disasters in the studies reviewed by the two researchers. Each

Business entities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Business entities - Essay Example The former is considered to be a prescriptive approach, and the latter an explanatory, descriptive, or predictive approach. Normative business ethics is the domain of philosophers and theologians, while empirical business ethics is considered to be the domain of management consultants and business school professors. Scholars who represent these different domains are said to be guided by different theories, assumptions, and norms which often result in misunderstanding or lack of appreciation for each others endeavors. The normative approach, rooted in philosophy and the liberal arts, focuses its attention on questions of what ought to be, and how an individual or business ought to behave in order to be ethical. The empirical approach, rooted in management and the social sciences, is generally concerned with questions of what is, assuming that the organizational world is basically objective and "out there" awaiting impartial exploration and discovery. Empiricist answer questions of what is by attempting to describe, explain, or predict phenomena in the natural world using the agreed-upon methodologies of their social scientific training. The social scientist may devalue the philosophers moral judgments because these judgments cannot be understood in empirical terms and cannot be verified by empirical testing or be used to predict or explain behavior. The social scientists statements about morality, on the other hand, are seen to be of little value to the philosopher because such statements do not address the essential questions of right and wrong. Normative ethical theories develop standards by which the propriety of certain practices in the business world can be evaluated. In contrast, the empirical approach focuses on identifying definable and measurable factors within the individual psyches and social contexts that influence individual and organizational ethical behavior. (Trevino 1994) Gary Weaver and Linda Tevino have outlined three

Questions and Answers on DNA and MRNA

Questions and Answers on DNA and MRNA Rumana Anam Q1. What is the full forms of the following: D.N.A Deoxyribonucleic (The Free Dictionary, 2015) MRNA Messenger Ribonucleic Acid (The Free Dictionary, 2015) TRNA Transfer Ribonucleic Acid (The Free Dictionary, 2015) Q2. Complete the following sentences The synthesis of mRNA from DNA is known as:- Transcription (The Free Dictionary, 2015) The synthesis of proteins from RNA is known as:- Protein Synthesis (The Free Dictionary, 2015) Q3. Explain the process of Protein Synthesis detailing the role of DNA, mRNA, tRNA and ribosomes. The process where individual cells make protein is called protein synthesis. DNA and all RNA are both involved in this process. RNA are made by enzymes in the cell’s nucleus which start the process of protein synthesis by way of unwinding the wanted section of the DNA. A copy of one side of the DNA is formed by the RNA, and then is sent to all the other areas of the cell to help to bring altogether the different amino acids that make up proteins. As proteins are synthesised by mechanical and chemical processes within the cells, this process is called protein synthesis. Within the nucleus when the strand of RNA has been made, it is called messenger RNA MRNA. Through opening in the nucleus called pores the MRNA exits the nucleus and goes into the larger area of the cell which is called cytoplasm. As soon as the MRNA leaves the nucleus, it is attracted to a structure called ribosome, which are the cells work station or factory for protein synthesis. Within this point only one sub unit of ribosome is present. Another strand of RNA called transfer RNA, TRNA are activated as the MRNA start to attach to the ribosome sub unit. The TRNA stand finds the correct place to bind to the MRNA, as soon as it finds the place; it binds itself to the MRNA, which on one end holding amino acid. As this happens the other sub unit of ribosome come to completely form a complete structure. Another strand of TRNA appears as the ribosome encircles the strand of RNA. This strand is different from the first strand as it is carrying another amino acid; again the TRNA finds the correct place to bind to the MRNA. With the amino acid as soon as the second strand of TRNA is placed, both of the amino acid joins together aided by the ribosome, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) with its cellular energy. As this pattern continues and repeats itself the chain of amino acid grows longer. As soon as all the amino acids have been placed in the correct sequence, a three-dimensional chain is made. O nce this has happened the protein is complete. When the proteins have been made the two sub-units of ribosome part to be joined later. In many ribosomes within the cell the process of protein synthesis take place there (Wisegeek, 2015). Q4.What is Point Mutation? Evaluate its effects. Point mutation is where there is a change within a gene, where one base pair in the DNA sequenced is changed or altered.Point mutation is most commonly the result of mistakes made during the DNA replication, however if DNA is exposed to x-rays and or ultraviolet radiations, this can also bring on point mutation. The two types of mutations are transition mutation and transversion mutation. Transition mutation happens when a pyrimidine base which is thymine (T) or cytosine (C) changes for another pyrimidine base, or it is when a purine base which is adenine (A) or guanine (G) changes for another purine base. Within a double stranded DNA each base is paired with a certain partner on the corresponding strand. A always pairs with T and C always pairs with G. For example a transition mutation is a GC base pair that swaps an AT base pair. However transversion mutation happens when a purine base changes for a pyrimidine base or the other way around i.e. when a TA or CG swaps for AT pair (Britannica, 2015). Point mutation can be put in three groups, nonsense mutation which is a code for a stop this can shorten the protein. Missense mutation which is a code for a different amino acid and silent mutation which is a code for the same or a different amino acid with no purposeful change in the protein itself. Missense mutation for example causes sickle cell disease, as the beta haemoglobin gene converts a GAG code into a GTG. This codes the amino acid valine instead of glutamic acid (Answers, 2015). The Effects of Point Mutation As all the cells within the body contain DNA therefore there are many places where point mutation can happen. However not all mutations are passed on to the offspring, these do not matter for evolution purposes. The mutations that matter for evolution purposes are those that can be passed on to the offspring, these happen in the reproductive cells eggs and sperm this type of mutation is called germ line mutation. There are three effects of germ line mutation:- No change happens in the phenotype, this is where there is no effect on the organism. This can happen in a part of the DNA strand where there is no function, or it can happen in a protein coding area but does not affect the amino acid sequence of the protein. Small changes happen in the phenotype, a single mutation can cause some cats ears to curl backwards. Significant changes happen in phenotype, this is where significant changes happen within the organism for example sickle cell disease. A single mutation can cause negative effects for the organism for example mutation that cause death, this is called lethal. Mutations are sometimes stereotyped as unimportant or the cause of genetic disease. While many mutations do have a negative effect, other mutations can have a small positive effect. Mutations that control genes can have a huge and sometimes positive effect. As some areas of the DNA control other genes, that decide when and where other genes are turned on, mutation in these parts can considerably change the way an organism is built. This can cause flow of effects in the behaviour of the genes under its control. Organisms have control genes that shape how the body is laid out i.e. the Hox gene is found in humans and animals. This gene sets out where the head goes and where limbs grow. These control gene build the bodies units i.e. limbs, head etc, therefore evolving a huge change in basic body lay out can be likely by a change in the Hox gene and natural selection (Understanding Evolution, 2015). Task 2 Q5. What is the probability of a couple having a boy or a girl? Male X Y Female X X XX = Girl XY= Boy The probability of a couple having a boy is 50%, the probability of a couple having a girl is 50%. Q6 What chromosomal abnormalities occur in the inheritance of Down’s syndrome Down syndrome is a result from trisomy 21, this is where the 21st chromosome has three chromosome and not the normal 2 chromosome. Therefore the individual will have 47 chromosomes and not the normal 46 chromosome. Down syndrome is cause by chromosomal abnormalities that happens randomly in the development stage of reproductive cells within a parent. This normally happens in the egg, but can sometimes happen in the sperm. The mistake in cell division results in a reproductive cell with abnormal number of chromosome, trisomy 21. This condition brings on intellectual disability, a characteristic facial appearance and weak muscle tone, all individual that are effected have cognitive delay (Genetics Home Reference, 2012). Q7. Explain inheritance of a sex-linked condition with a relevant example Hemophilia A and hemophilia B are both inherited sex linked traits, where they are inherited through the X linked recessive pattern. The genes that cause this condition are in the X chromosome, which is one half of the two sex chromosomes, the other being the Y chromosome. As males only have one X chromosome, one changed copy of the gene in the cell is enough to cause this condition. As females have two X chromosomes a mutation would have to have happened in both of the copies of the genes to cause this condition. This is very rare to happen in females as both copies of genes would have to have the same mutation happened to them. Therefore it is rare for females to have hemophilia. Fathers cannot pass on the inherited X linked condition to their sons as this is one of the characteristics of X linked inheritance. Females who have this X linked recessive condition have one mutated gene are called carriers. Female’s carriers have normally half the amount of coagulation factor whi ch is enough for blood clotting. Some female’s carriers have less than half of the normal amount of coagulation factor, these carriers are at risk for abnormal bleeding (About Education, 2015). Q8. Explain the inheritance of either cystic fibrosis or phenylketonuria Cystic fibrosis is a disorder that causes respiratory failure and vitamin deficiencies. Cystic fibrosis effects the secretion of the body i.e. saliva, mucus, sweat and digestive juices. As this secretion should be thin and watery, they are thick and sticky. This causes passageways to be clogged up within the body which causes damage to the pancreas and lungs. Cystic fibrosis is caused by inheriting defected gene from both parents, known as recessive gene. Cystic fibrous cannot be inherited by the off spring, if only one parent has the gene. If the off spring has only one defective gene then they are carriers of cystic fibrosis, this means that they will have the potential to pass on the defective gene to their off spring (eHow, 2015). The off spring labelled Ff are carriers, they have one defective gene but do not have the disorder themselves. In the diagram above both parents are carriers, they have one in four chances of producing an off spring that has cystic fibrosis (Bitesize, 2014). In the diagram above one parent is a carrier, while the other is not. They will not produce an off spring with cystic fibrosis, but are able to produce off springs that are carriers (Bitesize, 2014). Q9 Describe the process of genetic screening explaining the application of DNA recombinant technology in the treatment of a named medical condition.   Genetic testing is a medical test that can indicate any changes in the chromosomes, genes and proteins. The result of genetic testing can help to confirm or reject an alleged genetic condition, disease that the individual may have suspicion of, or help verify their chances of developing and or passing on a genetic disorder to their off spring. Some of the methods of genetic testing can be of these. Molecular genetic testing, this is where the medics study a single gene or short lengths of DNA to find defectiveness or mutation that may lead to a genetic disorder. Chromosomal genetic testing, this is where a whole chromosome and or long lengths of DNA to see if there are any sizable genetic changes i.e. extra copy of chromosome. Biochemical genetic testing, this is where the activity level or the amount of proteins are studied; any abnormalities that are detected can indicate genetic disorder (Genetic Home Reference, 2015). DNA recombinant technology, is a technology that produces DNA artificially. The DNA in living organism has been changed today due to this procedure. This procedure involves taking DNA from two difference sources and merging it together for it to become one single molecule. However this only works when the artificially created DNA has been reproduced, this is known as DNA cloning. The two types of cloning that DNA recombinant technology is used for are, therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning. The reproductive cloning produces an organism with the exact same genetic information from the one that already is living. This type of cloning has been done with Dolly the sheep. Dolly was the first mammal to be reproduced as a genetic copy. Therapeutic cloning, reproduces tissues and or organ and not the whole organism. Therapeutic cloning has a great deal of benefit, i.e. if an organ has cancer it can be replaced with one made from the individuals own DNA. This reduces any likely hood of organ rejection within the body when a tissue or organ transplant is preformed (Wisegeek, 2015). Q10 Discuss the moral and ethical issues raised by DNA recombinant technology Not everyone is in favour of DNA recombinant technology, as they feel that science is playing god by reproducing unnaturally organisms that are not meant to be. And that science is devaluing the uniqueness of life itself. Also that some DNA work involves destroying embryos, this angers some social activist as this death is bought on intently this could be classed as murder. However scientist, argue that the purpose of DNA recombinant technology is to benefit and save human life, and not to destroy it (Wisegeek, 2015). References The free Dictionary 2015, DNA, [online] available at http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/DNA, Last Accessed 18/05/15 The free Dictionary 2015, MRNA, [online] available at http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/mRNA, Last Accessed 18/05/15 The free Dictionary 2015, TRNA, [online] available at http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/tRNA, Last Accessed 18/05/15 WiseGeek 2015, What is Protein Synthesis, [online] available at http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-protein-synthesis.htm, Last accessed 19/05/15 Encyclopaedia Britannica 2015, Point Mutation, [online] available at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/54744/point-mutation, Last accessed 19/05/15 Answers 2015, What is point mutation, [online] available at http://www.answers.com/Q/What_is_point_mutation, Last accessed 20/05/15 Understanding Evolution 2015, The effects of Mutation, [online] available at http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/mutations_05, Last accessed 20/05/15 Genetics Home Reference 2012, Down Syndrome, [online] available at http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/down-syndrome, Last accessed 20/05/15 About Education 2015, Sex linked traits, [online] available at http://biology.about.com/od/genetics/ss/sex-linked-traits.htm, Last accessed 23/05/15 eHow 2015, How is Cystic Fibrosis Inherited, [online] available at http://www.ehow.com/how-does_5049940_cystic-fibrosis-inherited.html, Last accessed 23/05/15 Bitesize 2014, Cystic Fibrosis, [online] available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa_pre_2011/celldivision/inheritance4.shtml, Last accessed 23/05/15 Genetic Home Reference 2015, What is genetic testing, [online] available at http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting, Last accessed 23/05/15 WiseGeek 2015, What is Recombinant DNA Technology, [online] available at http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-recombinant-dna-technology.htm, Last accessed 23/05/15

Immobilisation of Enzimes Essay -- Chemistry

Immobilization of enzymes is one of promising methods in enzymes performances enhancement, such as stability, recovery, and reusability. However, investigation of suitable solid support in enzyme immobilization is still the one of problems to prevent the reduction of enzymes activity. Polyethersulfone (PES) and aminated PES (PES-NH2) as novel materials for the immobilization were successfully synthesized. Structure of synthesized polymers were characterized by NMR, FTIR, and MALDI-TOF. The membranes based on PES and PES-NH2 with various pore sizes (from 10 to 600 nm) was fabricated to be applied as bioreactor to increase the immobilized lipase performances. The influences of pore sizes, concentration of additives, and the presence of functional groups on PES backbone toward enzyme loading and enzyme activities were studied. The largest enzyme loading was obtained by the immobilization of Mucor miehei onto PES-NH2 membrane composed of 10% of PES-NH2, 8% of DBP, and 5% of PEG (87 2.62 ï€  Ã¯  ­g/cm2). Activity of immobilized lipase was determined by hydrolysis reaction of pNPA and methanol to produce pNP which showed the hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by immobilized lipase onto synthesized PES (10%) membrane represented the highest enzyme activity value (568.48 mmol pNP min-1 cm-2). From the reusability test, the immobilized lipase onto PES-NH2 showed better constancy than the immobilized lipase onto PES by four times of reactions which indicated that this novel material is potential to be developed as bioreactor on enzymatic reaction. Keywords: Aminated PES, solid support, Mucor miehei, enzymatic reaction, lipase immobilization 1. Introduction Lipase, also known as triacylglycerol ester hydrolase (EC3.1.1.3), is one of inter... ...ovic, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechol. 49 (1998), 267-271. [23] L. Giorno, E. Drioli, TIBTECH 18 (2000) 339-349. [24] S.C. Stamatoglou and J.M. Keller, The Journal of Cell Biology, 96 (1983) 1820-1823. [25] M.G.Wolf, M. Hoefling, C.A. Santamaria, H. Grupmuller, G. Groenhof, Journal of Computational Chem. 31 (2010) 2169-2174 [26] T. Tosa, T. Mori, N. Fuse, I. Chibata, Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 9 (1967) 603-615 [27] L.A. Nelson, T.A. Foglia, W.N. Marmer, JAOCS, 73 (1996) 1191-1195. [28] G. Pozinak, B. Krajewska, and W. Trochimczuk, Biomaterials, 16 (1995) 129-134. [29] M.T. Sho, F. R. Eirich, H. Strathmann, and R. W. Baker, Journal of Polymer Science: Polymer Letters Edition, 11 (1973) 201-205. [30] D.S. Marsman, NTP Toxicity Report, 30 (1995) 5-93. [31] N. Handayani, N. Miletic, K. Loos, S. Achmad, and D. Wahyuningrum, Sains Malaysiana, 40 (2011) 965-972.

Alice Munro the Found Boat Essay

At the end of Bell Street, McKay Street, Mayo Street, there was the Flood. It was the Wawanash River, which every spring overflowed its banks. Some springs, say one in every five, it covered the roads on that side of town and washed over the fields, creating a shallow choppy take. Light reflected off the water made every- thing bright and cold, as it is in a lakeside town, and woke or revived in people certain vague hopes of disaster. Mostly during the late afternoon and early evening, there were people straggling out to took at it, and discuss whether it was still rising, and whether this time it might invade the town. In general, those under fifteen and over sixty-five were most certain that it would. Eva and Carol rode out on their bicycles. They left the road-it was the end of Mayo Street, past any houses- and rode right into a field, over a wire fence entirely flattened by the weight of the winter’s snow. They coasted a little way before the long grass stopped them, then left their bicycles lying down and went to the water. ‘We have to find a log and ride on it,† Eva said. ‘Jesus, we’ll freeze our legs off. ‘Jesus, we’ll freeze our legs off’ said one of the boys who were there too at the water’s edge. He spoke in a sour whine, the way boys imitated girls although it was nothing like the way girls talked. These boys-there were three of them- were all in the same class as Eva and Carol at school and were known to them by name (their names being Frank, Bud and Clayton), but Eva and Carol, who had seen and recognized them from the road, had not spoken to them or looked at them or, even yet, given any sign of knowing they were there. The boys seemed to be trying to make a raft, from lumber they had salvaged from the water. Eva and Carol took off their shoes and socks and waded in. The water was so cold it sent pain up their legs, like blue electric sparks shooting through their veins, but they went on, putting their skirts high, tight behind and bunched so they could hold them in front. ‘Look at the fat-assed ducks in wading. ‘ ‘Fat-assed f****. † Eva and Carol, of course, gave no sign of hearing this. They laid hold of a log and climbed on, taking a couple of boards floating in the water for addles. There were always things floating around in the Flood-branches, fence-rails, logs, road signs, old lumber; sometimes boilers, washtubs, pots and pans, or even a car seat or stuffed chair, as if somewhere the Flood had got into a dump. They paddled away from shore, heading out into the cold take. The water was perfectly clear, they could see the brown grass swimming along the bottom. Suppose it was the sea, thought Eva. She thought of drowned cities and countries. Atlantis. Suppose they were riding in a Viking boat-Viking boats on the Atlantic were more frail and narrow than this log on the Flood-and they had miles of clear sea beneath them, then a spired city, intact as a jewel irretrievable on the ocean floor. This is a Viking boat,† she said. ‘I am the carving on the front. † She stuck her chest out and stretched her neck, trying to make a curve, and she made a face, putting out her tongue. Then she turned and for the first time took notice of the boys. ‘Hey, you sucks! † she yelled at them. ‘You’d be scared to come out here, this water is ten feet deep! â€Å"Liar,’ they answered without interest, and she was. They steered the log around a row of trees, avoiding floating barbed wire, and got into a little bay created by a natural hollow of the land. Where the bay was now, there would be a pond full of frogs later in the spring, and by the middle of summer there would be no water visible at all, just a low tangle of reeds and bushes, green, to show that mud was still wet around their roots. Larger bushes, willows, grew around the steep bank of this pond and were still partly out of the water. Eva and Carol let the log ride in. They saw a place where something was caught. It was a boat, or part of one. An old rowboat with most of one side ripped out, the board that had been the seat just dangling. It was pushed up among the branches, lying on what would have been its side, if it had a side, the prow caught high. Their idea came to them without consultation, at the same time: ‘You guys! Hey, you guys! † ‘We found you a boat! † â€Å"Stop building your stupid raft and come and took at the boat! ‘ What surprised them in the first place was that the boys really did come, scrambling overland, half running, half sliding down the bank, wanting to see. ‘Hey, where? ‘ ‘Where is it, I don’t see no boat. â€Å" What surprised them in the second place was that when the boys did actually see what boat was meant, this old flood-smashed wreck held up in the branches, they did not understand that they had been footed, that a joke had been played on them. They did not show a moment’s disappointment, but seemed as pleased at the discovery as if the boat had been whole and new. They were already barefoot, because they had been wading in the water to get lumber, and they waded in here without a stop, surrounding the boat and appraising it and paying no attention even of an insulting kind to Eva and Carol who bobbed up and down on their log. Eva and Carol had to call to them. ‘How do you think you’re going to get it off.? ‘ â€Å"It won’t float anyway. ‘ ‘What makes you think it will float? ‘ ‘It’ll sink. Glub-blub-blub, you’ll all be drownded. † The boys did not answer, because they were too busy walking around the boat, pulling at it in a testing way to see how it could be got off with the least possible damage. Frank, who was the most literate, talkative and inept of the three, began referring to the boat as she, an affectation which Eva and Carol acknowledged with fish-mouths of contempt. ‘She’s caught two places. You got to be careful not to tear a hole in her bottom. She’s heavier than you’d think. ‘ It was Clayton who climbed up and freed the boat, and Bud, a tall fat boy, who got the weight of it on his back to turn it into the water so that they could half float, half carry it to shore. All this took some time. Eva and Carol abandoned their log and waded out of the water. They walked overland to get their shoes and socks and bicycles. They did not need to come back this way but they came. They stood at the top of the hill, leaning on their bicycles. They did not go on home, but they did not sit down and frankly watch, either. They stood more or less facing each other, but glancing down at the water and at the boys struggling with the boat, as if they had just halted for a moment out of curiosity, and staying longer than they intended, to see what came of this unpromising project. About nine o’clock, or when it was nearly dark-dark to people inside the houses, but not quite dark outside-they all returned to town, going along Mayo Street in a sort of procession. Frank and Bud and Clayton came carrying the boat, upside-down, and Eva and Carol walked behind, wheeling their bicycles. The boys’ heads were almost hidden in the darkness of the overturned boat, with its smell of soaked wood, cold swampy water. The girls could took ahead and see the street lights in their tin reflectors, a necklace of lights climbing Mayo Street, reaching all the way up to the standpipe. They turned onto Burns Street heading for Clayton’s house, the nearest house belonging to any of them. nis was not the way home for Eva or for Carol either, but they followed along. The boys were perhaps too busy carrying the boat to tell them to go away. Some younger children were still out playing, playing hopscotch on the sidewalk though they could hardly see. At this time of year the bare sidewalk was still such a novelty and delight. These children cleared out of the way and watched the boat 90 by with unwilling respect; they shouted questions after it, wanting to know where it came from and what was going to be done with it. No one answered them. Eva and Carol as well as the boys refused to answer or even took at them. The five of them entered Clayton’s yard. ‘Me boys shifted weight, as if they were going to put the boat down. You better take it round to the back where nobody can see it,’ Carol said. That was the first thing any of them had said since they came into town. The boys said nothing but went on, following a mud path between Clayton’s house and a leaning board fence. They let the boat down in the back yard. â€Å"It’s a stolen boat, you know,† said Eva, mainly for the effect. ‘It must’ve belonged to somebody. You stole it. † ‘You was the ones who stole it then,† Bud said, short of breath. ‘It was you seen it first. † -It was you took it. † ‘It was all of us then. If one of us gets in trouble then all of us does. ‘Are you going to tell anybody on them? † said Carol as she and Eva rode home, along the streets which were dark between the lights now and potholed from winter. â€Å"It’s up to you. I won’t if you won’t. † â€Å"I won’t if you won’t† They rode in silence, relinquishing something, but not discontented. The board fence in Clayton’s back yard had every so often a post which sup, ported it, or tried to, and it was on these posts that Eva and Carol spent several evenings sitting, jauntily but not very comfortably. Or else they just leaned against the fence while the boys worked on the boat. During the first couple of evenings neighborhood children attracted by the sound of hammering tried to get into the yard to see what was going on, but Eva and Carol blocked their way. â€Å"Who said you could come in here? † ‘Just us can come in this yard. † These evenings were getting longer, the air milder. Skipping was starting on the sidewalks. Further along the street there was a row of hard maples that had been tapped. Children drank the sap as fast as it could drip into the buckets. The old man and woman who owned the trees, and who hoped to make syrup, came running out of the house making noises as if they were trying to scare away crows. Finally, every spring, the old man would come out on his porch and fire his shot- gun into the air, and then the thieving would stop. None of those working on the boat bothered about stealing sap, though all had done so last year. The lumber to repair the boat was picked up here and there, along back lanes. At this time of year things were lying around-old boards and branches, sodden mitts, spoons Hung out with the dishwater, lids of pudding pots that had been set in the snow to cool, all the debris that can sift through and survive winter. The tools came from Clayton’s cellar-left over, presumably, from the time when his father was alive- and though they had nobody to advise them the boys seemed to figure out more or less the manner in which boats are built, or rebuilt. Frank was the one who showed up with diagrams from books and Popular Mechanics magazines. Clayton looked at these diagrams and listened to Frank read the instructions and then went ahead and decided in his own way what was to be done. Bud was best at sawing. Eva and Carol watched everything from the fence and offered criticism and thought up names. Me names for the boat that they thought of were: Water Lily, Sea Horse, Flood Queen, and Caro-Eve, after them because they had found it. The boys did not say which, if any, of these names they found satisfactory. The boat had to be tarred. Clayton heated up a pot of tar on the kitchen stove and brought it out and painted slowly, his thorough way, sitting astride the overturned boat. The other boys were sawing a board to make a new seat. As Clayton worked, the tar cooled and thickened so that finally he could not move the brush any more. He turned to Eva and held out the pot and said, ‘You ran go in and heat this on the stove. ‘ Eva took the pot and went up the back steps. The kitchen seemed black after outside, but it must be light enough to see in, because there was Clayton’s mother standing at the ironing board, ironing. She did that for a living, took in wash and ironing. ‘Please may I put the tar pot on the stove? † said Eva, who had been brought up to talk politely to parents, even wash-and-iron ladies, and who for some reason especially wanted to make a good impression on Clayton’s mother. You’ll have to poke up the fire then,’ said Clayton’s mother, as if she doubted whether Eva would know how to do that. But Eva could see now, and she picked up the lid with the stove-lifter, and took the poker and poked up a flame. She stirred the tar as it softened. She felt privileged. Then and later. Before she went to sleep a picture of Clayton came to her mind; she saw him sitting astride the boat, tar painting, with such concentration, delicacy, absorption. She thought of him speaking to her, out of his isolation, in such an ordinary peaceful taking-for- granted voice. On the twenty-fourth of May, a school holiday in the middle of the week, the boat was carried out of town, a long way now, off the road over fields and fences that had been repaired, to where the river flowed between its normal banks. Eva and Carol, as well as the boys, took turns carrying it. It was launched in the water from a cow-trampled spot between willow bushes that were fresh out in leaf. The boys went first. They yelled with triumph when the boat did float, when it rode amazingly down the river current. The boat was painted black, and green inside, with yellow seats, and a strip of yellow all the way around the outside. There was no name on it, after all. The boys could not imagine that it needed any name to keep it separate from the other boats in the world. Eva and Carol ran along the bank, carrying bags full of peanut butter-and- jam sandwiches, pickles, bananas, chocolate cake, potato chips, graham crackers stuck together with corn syrup and five bottles of pop to be cooled in the river water. The bottles bumped against their legs. They yelled for a turn. ‘If they don’t let us they’re bastards,† Carol said, and they yelled together, ‘We found it! We found it! The boys did not answer, but after a while they brought the boat in, and Carol and Eva came crashing, panting down the bank. ‘Does it leak? ‘ ‘It don’t leak yet. † ‘We forgot a bailing can,’ waited Carol, but nevertheless she got in, with Eva, and Frank pushed them off, crying, ‘Here’s to a Watery Grave! ‘ And the thing about being in a boat was that it was not solidly bobbing, like a log, but was cupped in the water, so that riding in it was not like being on some- thing in the water, but like being in the water itself. Soon they were ll going out in the boat in mixed-up turns, two boys and a girt, two girls and a boy, a girl and a boy, until things were so confused it was impossible to tell whose turn came next, and nobody cared anyway. They went down the river -those who weren’t riding, running along the bank to keep up. They passed under two bridges, one iron, one cement. Once they saw a big carp just resting, it seemed to smile at them, in the bridge-shaded water. They did not know how far they had gone on the river, but things had changed- the water had got shallower, and the land flatter. Across an open field they saw a building that looked like a house, abandoned. They dragged the boat up on the bank and tied it and set out across the field. ‘That’s the old station,’ Frank said. ‘That’s Pedder Station. ‘ The others had heard this name but he was the one who knew, because his father was the station agent in town. He said that this was a station on a branch line that had been tom up, and that there had been a sawmill here, but a long time ago. Inside the station it was dark, cool. All the windows were broken. Glass lay in shards and in fairly big pieces on the door. They walked around finding the larger pieces of glass and tramping on them, smashing them, it was like cracking ice on puddles. Some partitions were still in place, you could see where the ticket window had been. There was a bench lying on its side. People had been here, it looked as if people came here all the time, though it was so far from anywhere. Beer bottles and pop bottles were lying around, also cigarette packages, gum and candy wrappers, the paper from a loaf of bread. The walls were covered with dim and fresh pencil and chalk writings and carved with knives.

Plastic Pollution

Plastic has been the common materials that is being used on a daily basis. Many objects that made from plastic that can be seen from everyday such as food containers, plastic bag, storage and so many things that even a human being cannot think of it. Plastic’s existence has only just for over a century but because of the versatility of the materials plastics has a significantly increase in their use into all varieties of everyday life. Furthermore, the physical characteristic of plastic itself that are high resistance, durable, cheap and lightweight makes it suitable for production of a wide range of products category (Derraik, 2002).Basically plastics are synthetic organic polymers that are made from various chemical elements that mostly come from natural resources such as crude oil, gas and coal(Derraik, 2002). The raw materials of plastics were formed from ancient plants and animals hundreds of millions years ago. Therefore those raw materials are non-renewable resources th at explained when those resources would not be replaced for a short period of time. As many people use plastic everyday, it will take a more time to break down and as a result the plastic debris litter everywhere and become plastic pollution.As plastic is buoyant, it easily blows from garbage dumps or even flows through river that eventually moves through the sea. According to Australian Marine Conservation Society (2013b), when plastics are in the ocean, it will slowly breaks down in to smaller pieces and being eaten by animals that live at the bottom or even to the birds that flies and eat the floating plastic debris. Causes: Plastic pollution is the environmental problem that has been the issue that discussed by many people because of many causes occurred because of this problem.First, many people or even businesses gain profit from using plastics because of its characteristics that is hard to be substituted with other materials. As mentioned before plastic is non-renewable resou rce and need a long period of time to break down, however people use plastic for mostly everything surrounds them. So it will make availability of the natural resources for raw materials of the plastics decreases significantly and can be resulted a scarcity of resources. Other causes that happened because of plastic pollution is the marine life being threaten of the big amount of plastic that dumps in the ocean.In fact in Australia, AMCS found that 90% of marine debris on Sydney’s beaches is plastic, mostly bottles and straws. And also it emphasizes that Australians approximately buy 600 millions litres of bottled water a year and uses 10 million of plastic bags a day (2013b). Hence, large amounts of plastic are being produced each day and when it becomes litter, plastic can endanger the health of animals and sea life. Once the plastic debris are eaten, plastics are not provide proportionate nutrition through the ingestion of the plastic inside the animals’ body and wi ll result irritation of stomach that lead to death (Moore, 2008).High concentration of floating debris in the ocean brings potential threat to the marine life particularly to sea mammals and seabirds. As seabirds seek food from the ocean, when appears floating debris they might eat mistakenly or starvation that lead them to choke plastic and for certain period of time can endanger to the health of the birds (Edyvane K. S, 2004). According to AMCS, there are around one million seabirds and one hundred thousands marine mammals are killed every year because of plastics throughout the world.They analysed it by checking what inside the animal’s body and found out that, numerous of plastic debris cannot be ingested that killed those unfortunate animals. Furthermore plastic debris such as medical waste, plastic diapers and sanitary waste sometimes also can be seen on the beach that might impact to a public health hazard (Moore, 2008). The reason that plastic debris all over the beac hes is because lack of responsibility of visitor to appropriately throw the rubbish to the bin. Many of people think that plastic is easy to be carried but they are not aware about the impact of using plastic too much.Solutions: There are many potential solutions for the plastic pollution. As plastic is non-renewable resources and damage to the environment during its production and disposal process as well, so the only best way to recover it is reduce the use and the production of plastics. Even though plastics cannot be replaced with any other substitute, however, it is possible to change the raw materials that can be recycled and break down. For instance, many plastic bags for supermarket already change to degradable plastic, which is more environmental friendly.Another solution that are still being developed for reducing plastic pollution for marine life is Container Deposit Scheme that tackle and help take plastic off the plate for marine life (2013a). As can be seen actually th ere are a lot of bins provided in every corner of the street in Australia, but it still will not work because sometimes people do not care about to separate their rubbish into recycle or non-recycle. Therefore Container Deposit Scheme will be a non-profit and work independently of the beverage companies.As many Australian buy innumerable bottles each day, it will increase the price of the drinks by 10 cent and whenever the container is returned to the convenient recycling depot, that amount of money will be refunded. However, if it is not returned, this deposit scheme will continue to recycle and help to clean up the litter including the marine pollution. Stakeholders: Basically, the key stakeholders for this problem to start reducing plastic use, as a human being we should do things differently first. Our attitude to litter rubbish everywhere is should be changed in order to save the environment.So we should be aware of the impact of plastic use for a long time that can damage anim als and also the environment. Australian government has already involved in solving this plastic pollution problem. Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism are the level of government that takes care of this specific problem(2013c). However they also need the involvement of citizen as well because the role of this department is help to give information to the citizen. In Australia, plastic products and packaging are required to marked with plastic identification code that place at the bottom to identify specifically what type of plastic is made from.So from the code itself, the government purposely encourages people to sort out the plastics materials type accordance to the recycle or non-recycle. In addition to the plastic debris in the ocean, Australian Marine Conservatory Society as the organization that influence by educate the public and equipping groups with suitable knowledge and skills to rescue sick and tangled marine animals because of plastic. They are responsible and have interest on marine life that endangered. Conclusion: As conclusion, plastic is spread all over the place because its physical characteristics that makes everybody tend to use for daily products.However, plastic is non-renewable resources that harm environment for long period of time. It happens that on the beach, there is incalculable debris that spread all over the location. Hence, this problem can be solved, when people have initiative to change their attitudes towards plastic. They should be able to separate which are recyclable and non-recyclable. So it will reduce the amount of plastic debris and help to maintain the ecosystem in the ocean as well as keep the population of animals that are endangered because of plastic debris.